An Overview of the Book of Proverbs

When people think of the OT Wisdom literature (which includes Job, Ecclesiastes, and some Psalms) they usually first think of Proverbs, and for good reason. This book does indeed live up to its reputation as a treasure trove of biblical wisdom.

Who Wrote the Book of Proverbs?

Proverbs is an anthology of wisdom that explicitly includes the voices of Solomon (1:1; 10:1; 25:1), the “wise” (22:17; 24:23), Agur (30:1), and Lemuel (31:1). There was also the editorial work of the “men of Hezekiah” (25:1) along with, presumably, a final editor or editors who put the whole collection together in its finished form. And when one considers the international borrowing of proverbs among different peoples, one can readily recognize that Proverbs does not relay the thought of only a single human author.

Nevertheless, it is also true that the most significant authorial voice in the book is that of Solomon. Several factors support this claim. First, when comparing its structure with the structure of other works of wisdom in the ANE, Pr 1:1–22:16 displays a unity as the work of Solomon. “The corpus conforms precisely in its structure with many of the ancient Near Eastern ‘instruction’ documents: main title with preamble (1:1-7), a prologue (collection 1: 1:8–9:18), a subtitle to collection 2 (10:1), and the main text (10:2–22:16)” (Bruce Waltke, with Charles Yu, An Old Testament Theology: An Exegetical, Canonical, and Thematic Approach [Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007], 905). Second, the words of the wise (22:17–24:34) most likely are Solomon’s own compilation and adaptation of wisdom from other sources, appended to 1:1–22:16. After all, since its author is not named (which is not typical of works of wisdom instruction in the ANE), the “I” (22:19) who introduces this section most naturally accords with the Solomonic “I” of chaps. 1–9 (Waltke, OT Theology, 905). Third, chaps. 25–29 are another section of Solomonic proverbs, this time collected by scholars in the time of King Hezekiah (25:1). Fourth, Solomon’s work in collecting and disseminating the wisdom in Proverbs fits well the biblical picture of him as a famous sage and composer of wisdom writings (1Kg 4:29-34; cf. 1Kg 3).

Hence, with the exception of chaps. 30–31, all the previous sections of the book have a direct connection with Solomon. This makes the superscription in 1:1, “the proverbs of Solomon,” an appropriate description of the book as a whole.

When Was the Book of Proverbs Written?

The authorship of the book gives parameters to its date. Given the conclusion above regarding chaps. 1–24, this section would be dated to the time of Solomon (around 950 BC). The compilation of chaps. 25–29, as indicated in the text itself, would be dated at the time of Hezekiah (716–687 BC). What about chaps. 30–31? There is no external or internal evidence to date this material. Consequently, no firm date can be affixed to the final editing of Proverbs, though it is possible that it was as early as the time of Hezekiah.

Who Were the Original Readers of the Book of Proverbs?

The authorship question also gives direction to the setting and audience of the book. The prominence of Solomon, as well as the influence of Hezekiah’s men and King Lemuel make a royal court setting for the compilation of much of Proverbs evident. But the proverbs do not deal solely with court life. Indeed, in regard to the transmission of the wisdom in Proverbs, the setting of the book seems more attuned to the family—a father addressing his son (or a mother her son in chap. 31). “Solomon intended to transmit his wisdom to Israel’s youths by putting his proverbs in the mouths of godly parents (1:8-9), even as Moses disseminated the law in the home (cf. Dt 6:7-9)” (Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs, Chapters 1–15, NICOT [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004], 63).

What Is the Structure and Genre of the Book of Proverbs?

The text of Proverbs clearly indicates that it is a collection of different works of wisdom, each of which is usually headed by a title of sorts. This sets up the basic organization of the book.

After a short preface to the book as a whole (1:1-7), the first nine chapters (1:8–9:18) are a collection of lengthy discourses on wisdom. These discourses differ markedly from the two line aphorisms people usually associate with Proverbs. They are a collection of lengthy poems primarily in the form either of a father addressing his son or of a personified wisdom herself calling for people to follow her ways. These discourses usually have three parts: (1) a call to the addressee exhorting him to listen to the lesson and providing him motivation to do so (e.g., 2:1-11), (2) a lesson commending the way of wisdom and/or warning against the way of folly (e.g., 2:12-19), and (3) a conclusion that summarizes the teaching (e.g., 2:20-22) (Tremper Longman III, Proverbs, BCOT [Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2006], 30). This section primarily functions to exhort the reader to embrace the way of wisdom rather than the way of folly, making it a fitting beginning to Proverbs as a whole.

The next section (10:1–22:16) is called “the proverbs of Solomon.” The majority of this section is made up of the two-line proverb so familiar to many. There are four major questions to consider in connection with this literary form.

First, what exactly is a proverb? A proverb (Hb. mashal, “comparison,” “parable,” “proverb”) is a short wisdom saying—“wisdom in a nutshell” (M. Salisbury, quoted in Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1–9: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000], 15). The Hebrew term itself likely picks up on the idea of a comparison, perhaps referring to metaphors and similes in the proverb or to how the lines of the proverb relate to one another, but more likely referring to how the wise reader connects his situation to the message of the proverb (Waltke, Book of Proverbs 1–15, 56).

Second, what are some characteristics of a proverb? Proverbs share the characteristics of all Hebrew poetry. They are quite concise, but their brevity is dense with meaning and motivation. Moreover, like much good poetry, they are filled with figures of speech and laden with imagery, creating pictures with words. This helps the reader not only to remember but also to reflect further on what is said.

Proverbs are also characterized by another key feature of Hebrew poetry, parallelism, not rhyme schemes familiar in English poems. Hebrew poetry is arranged in groups of two or more lines that are parallel in structure, though they do not merely say the same thing. They are “juxtaposed in such a way that the words and images play off against each other and suggest a web of meanings” (Fox, Proverbs 1–9, 15). So in a two-line parallelism (as are most proverbs in this section), the second line might, for example, intensify, specify, reinforce, expand on, or contrast with the first line (William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation [Dallas: Word, 1993], 225). The majority of the proverbs in this particular section of the book have antithetical parallelism (a contrast between the two lines). In any case, the key task for the interpreter is to seek to understand how the lines interact with one another.

Beyond these characteristics that proverbs share with Hebrew poetry in general, a proverb has a distinctive feature. A proverb, by its very nature, presents a general principle, a rule of thumb. This feature leads to a third question: how should one construe a proverb? Christians often misconstrue a proverb by understanding it as a rigid command or a fixed promise. On this view, a proverb could not have any exceptions. But this fundamentally misunderstands the genre. For “the proverb form, no matter the cultural background, presupposes the right circumstances for its proper application” (Tremper Longman III, How to Read Proverbs [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2002], 48). That is, proverbs have a range of application. Some may virtually always apply; many others do not apply to every situation. But it takes a wise person to know when each applies. For example, in light of 26:4-5, should one answer a fool according to his folly (v. 5) or not (v. 4)? It depends on the situation. “A wise person knows the right time and the right situation for the right proverb” (Longman, How to Read Proverbs, 49). This was one of the problems with Job’s friends. Many of the principles they articulated were proverbially true, but they inappropriately applied those principles to Job’s situation.

Finally, how are the proverbs in this section (10:1–22:16) related to one another? Many have argued that the proverbs in this section are put together randomly, with no particular arrangement. On a cursory reading, this certainly seems to be the case. Recently, however, several scholars have argued that there are literary units within this section, although there is no widespread consensus on how those units might be delineated precisely because no unit is obvious on a cursory reading. Advocates appeal to various features like literary devices (e.g., chiasm or inclusio), repeated sounds (e.g., alliteration, assonance), or repeated words or ideas as the basis for a literary unit.

It is quite possible that, as they were collected, some of these proverbs were put together in small literary units. However, as a general rule, it seems more prudent to approach this section as a random collection of proverbs. After all, when used originally in their oral context, they did stand alone (this section is a collection of proverbs, after all). Furthermore, they do not usually appear to be grouped together in terms of their actual content. Moreover, their largely random arrangement reflects real life, which is muddled and resistant to neat categorization (Longman, How to Read Proverbs, 40). In this sense, these “proverbs are presented in the seemingly haphazard way we encounter the issues with which they deal” in real life (Duane Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, NAC [Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1993], 46).

This is a significant question because it directly influences how one interprets these proverbs. In short, what precisely is the context? As suggested above, this commentary will usually approach each proverb on its own without reference to a larger context. However, comments will also sometimes take account of two types of contexts to nuance the interpretation of certain proverbs. When a proverb does seem to be grouped in a unit with other proverbs, we will consider the literary context. And when a proverb deals with a certain topic, we will sometimes take into consideration the topical context (i.e., other proverbs that deal with the same topic).

The next section in Proverbs is the “sayings of the wise” (22:17–24:34). Four features are notable in this section. First, this section is different in style from the previous one. Most of the sayings are more extended than the two-line proverbs that dominate the previous section, and they reflect the style of a father’s address to his son (so prominent earlier in chaps. 1–9). Second, this section has two parts, the “thirty sayings of the wise” (22:17–24:22) and “more sayings of the wise” (24:23-34). Third, there is some disagreement over the exact delineation of the “thirty sayings” in part one (an issue that will be addressed within the commentary itself). Fourth, parts of this section are strikingly parallel with the words of the Egyptian wise man Amenemope. Whichever work was written earlier, this feature is a reminder of the international character of wisdom in the ancient world, as previously noted.

The “sayings of the wise” are followed by another collection of Solomon’s proverbs (25:1– 29:27). These sayings were collected during the reign of Hezekiah (25:1). They are similar in style to the first collection of Solomon’s proverbs (10:1–22:16).

The last two chapters of Proverbs consist of three separate sections. The first of these is the sayings of Agur (30:1-33). The identity of Agur is obscure; he may have been an unknown Israelite or even a Gentile wise man. One interesting feature of this section is the repeated use of numerical proverbs (e.g., 30:18-19). The second section in these chapters is the sayings of King Lemuel (31:1-9). Like Agur, Lemuel’s identity is obscure, as is his kingdom. But he too may have been a Gentile. The words in this section actually reflect the teaching of Lemuel’s mother, and they focus on the characteristics of an ideal king. The third section deals with another ideal, that of the ideal wife. This is an acrostic poem (each line of the poem beginning with a subsequent letter of the Hebrew alphabet) describing the virtuous woman. As argued in the commentary, this poem is likely a continuation of the words of King Lemuel.

What Are Some Key Themes in the Book of Proverbs?

When considering the theology of Proverbs, one could profitably explore numerous specific topics addressed in the book (e.g., wealth, laziness, speech, etc.). Unfortunately, space precludes this commentary from such investigations (see Longman, Proverbs, 549–578 and Derek Kidner, Proverbs: An Introduction and Commentary, TOTC [Downers Grove, IL: Tyndale, 1964], 31–56, for good examples). However, certain theological themes are so important in understanding the book as a whole that they need to be addressed here at the outset.

The Nature of Wisdom

Though contemporary Americans value wisdom (just check out the self-help section of a local bookstore), America is not a proverbial society. For Americans, proverbs are trite and infrequently used. But this is not the case in many other cultures. It certainly was not the case in ancient Israel where proverbs were a part of everyday life for all levels of society.

Israel was not alone in valuing proverbial wisdom. The larger culture of the ancient Near East, of which Israel was a part, also greatly valued proverbs, and there was a good deal of interchange between ANE cultures. So even though Israel’s wisdom was distinct in important ways, it also intentionally included international dialogue partners. For example, one can see direct parallels between several proverbs (particularly in 22:17–24:22) and the instructions of the Egyptian wise man Amenemope (an Egyptian government official probably sometime before 1000 BC). This should be no surprise in light of Solomon’s great wisdom, which was known across the ancient world (1Kg 4:29-31). “While the Old Testament scorns the magic and superstition which debased much of this thought (Is. 47:12,13), and the pride which inflated it (Jb. 5:13), it can speak of the gentile sages with a respect it never showed towards their priests. Solomon outstripped them, but we are expected to be impressed by the fact” (Kidner, Proverbs, 17).

What does Israel’s interchange with its neighbors imply about the nature of wisdom? Wisdom focuses on living in this world and in that sense has a foundation in general revelation. This is why non-Israelite wise men could look at the world and make wise observations. In looking long and hard at this world, the sage might make general conclusions, seeking to interpret what is happening in life broadly (as in Job or Ecclesiastes), or he might make more concrete conclusions, seeking to provide guidelines for living life skillfully (as in much of Proverbs). Nevertheless, this world is God’s world, and so biblical wisdom is superior to other wisdom, for it acknowledges that God is central. While pagan wisdom sought to control and manipulate the world order in favor of one’s own interests, biblical wisdom is rooted in the fear and worship of the living God (Pr 1:7; 9:10).

Wisdom as Theology

It was pointed out above, in connection with the international flavor of ANE wisdom, that wisdom has a particular interest in truth gleaned from observing life in this world. Yet this point should not be overstated.

The book of Proverbs is no more just another piece of ancient wisdom than a priceless masterpiece is just another painting. Nor is Proverbs just a collection of practical, secular advice with a few references to the Lord tacked on here and there to give it a pious veneer. Biblical wisdom is fundamentally theological precisely because it is rooted in the Lord Himself. Consider the following two crucial points.

First, biblical wisdom is revealed from God Himself. It is not merely the product of man’s insights into the world. Solomon received his wisdom from God (1Kg 4:29), as Solomon himself acknowledges (Pr 2:6). It is this divine wisdom that has been God’s ever-present companion from the beginning of time (8:22-31). Indeed, Agur makes clear that God’s wisdom, revealed in His Word, far exceeds the limitations of human capacities (30:2-6). Little wonder that Agur and Lemuel both consider their sayings to be an “oracle” (i.e., a prophetic revelation) from God (30:1; 31:1; see commentary below) (Waltke, OT Theology, 915–921).

Second, biblical wisdom reflects the worship of God Himself. This is why the fear of the Lord is the key to wisdom (cf. 1:7). Longman has pointed out that Pr 1–9 is really a hermeneutical guide for understanding the rest of Proverbs. Its major focus is to contrast wisdom with folly and extol the advantages of wisdom. This contrast is most pronounced in the comparison between Lady Wisdom and Woman Folly (chap. 9). Both invite the passerby (the reader) to join her for a fellowship meal. Both of their houses are situated on the highest point of the city, the place where temples were situated in the ancient world. Ultimately, both are calling the reader to worship either the Lord (in the case of wisdom) or idols (in the case of folly) (Longman, Proverbs, 58–61). This makes the decision between wisdom and folly a matter of life and death. Those who choose wisdom will inevitably fear (or worship) the Lord (1:7; 9:10) and put their trust in Him (3:5-6; 14:26; 16:3, 20; 18:10; 19:23; 22:19; 28:25). In the end, the wisdom sayings are effective because of the Lord who has revealed them to His sages and because He sustains them (Waltke, OT Theology, 921).

The Wise

Although it is not possible here to survey thoroughly the teaching of Proverbs on wisdom and the wise, consider three broad points. First, Proverbs uses a vast array of terms to describe wisdom and the wise. The full array of terms will be seen in the commentary below (e.g., 1:2-6), but Kidner’s survey provides a helpful sample. The wise are disciplined, having received wise “instruction” (musar; e.g., 1:2-3) and accepted “reproof ” (tokachat; e.g., 1:23; 3:11). The wise are also discerning because they have “understanding” (binah; tebunah; e.g., 1:2; 2:2). Moreover, they demonstrate practical common sense (“wise behavior”; sekel; e.g., 1:3; 12:8). This term was used of Bezalel, the craftsman whom the Lord gave skill for the building of the tabernacle (Ex 31). Hence, its usage in Proverbs should be understood as “skill for living.” The proverbs speak of “sound wisdom” (tushiyyah; e.g., Pr 2:7; 8:14) in times when resourcefulness is needed. Similarly, the wise have shrewdness (“prudence”;‘ormah; e.g., 1:4) and “discretion” (mezimmah; e.g., 1:4); they understand the situation and plan accordingly. Finally, they have “knowledge” (da‘at; e.g., 2:5; 3:6) and “learning” (leqach; e.g., 1:5) of God and His truth (Kidner, Proverbs, 36–37).

Second, because the wise by definition fear and trust the Lord, Proverbs inextricably links being wise with godliness. Wisdom is fundamentally spiritual and ethical. The wise are thus righteous (tsedeq; e.g., 1:3), just (mishpat; e.g., 1:3), and fair (“equity”; mesharim; e.g., 1:3). Similarly, they are also characterized as blameless (“integrity”; tom; e.g., 2:7), “good” (tob; e.g., 2:20), “upright” (yashar; e.g., 2:7). They also exemplify kindness (“steadfast love”; chesed; e.g., 3:3) and faithfulness (“truth”;’emet ; e.g., 3:3) (Waltke, Book of Proverbs 1–15, 97–100).

Third, wisdom is both compelling and accessible. Wisdom is shown not only as having innumerable benefits and rewards (and folly its dangers), but it is often pictured as a regal lady who is utterly incomparable and yet also available to all who seek her. For those willing to turn from folly and seek wisdom and the Lord who gives it, wisdom may be found.

The Fool

As with the wise, there is also a wide variety of terms for the fool. The mildest is the “naive” (peti; e.g., 14:15), who is gullible, aimless, and easily led astray. But he is not incorrigible and can be taught wisdom if he will listen. More intransigent is the typical “fool” in proverbs, called the kesil (e.g., 17:16) or the ’ewil (e.g., 24:7). This type includes “people with morally deficient characters that prompt their irrational behavior. They are blockheads because, deaf to wisdom, from their distorted moral vision, of which they are cocksure, they delight in twisting values that benefit the community” (Waltke, Book of Proverbs 1–15, 112). Even worse is the “scoffer” (lets; e.g., 9:7-8), who is utterly arrogant and hardened against wisdom and correction. His sneering attitude is repulsive, and his influence in society is noxious. Another type of fool deserving special mention is the “sluggard” (‘atsel; e.g., 26:13-16), whose laziness makes him a menace to himself and others. These terms make clear that, as with wisdom, so too folly is fundamentally spiritual and ethical. So, for example, the “wicked” (resha‘im; e.g., 10:3), the perverse (tahppukot; e.g., 6:14), the “devious” (luz; e.g., 3:32), and the “treacherous” (bogedim; e.g., 11:3, 6) are all fools as well.

Life and Death

A major theme in Proverbs is the two paths, those of wisdom and folly. Wisdom’s path is straight and smooth and leads to life; folly’s path is crooked and hard and leads to death. But what exactly does Proverbs mean by “life” and “death,” and do these concepts include eternal life and death?

In Proverbs, “life” sometimes refers merely to physical life (e.g., 31:12). But typically it goes beyond that to include a quality of life that involves material, social, psychological, moral, and spiritual well-being (3:21-22; 8:35; 10:16; 15:27; 16:15; 19:23; 21:21; 22:4). At its heart, life is tied inextricably to fellowship with the Lord (e.g., 2:5-8; 8:35). While Proverbs does not explore life after physical death in detail, it does indicate that abundant life in fellowship with the Lord continues after physical death (12:28; 14:32; 15:24; 23:17-18). This eternal, qualitative nature of life is why Proverbs consistently describes the wicked who are still physically alive as partaking not in life, but in death (Waltke, Book of Proverbs 1–15, 104–107; Kidner, Proverbs, 53–55).

What, then, is “death” in Proverbs? When taken in light of the entire OT, Proverbs included, “death is a whole realm in conflict with life, rather than a single and merely physical event” (Kidner, Proverbs, 55). To be sure, the death that folly and wickedness bring may well be physical (e.g., the result of capital justice for adultery, Lv 20:10; Dt 22:22). But death continues to endure in the grave (Sheol and Abaddon), and it can also come to those physically alive “in the forms of sickness (e.g., Ps. 116:3), calamity (Dt. 30:15) and above all, sin (Gn. 2:17)” (Kidner, Proverbs, 56). Most significantly, death has no part in the kind of abundant life that pertains to never-ending fellowship with God (Waltke, Book of Proverbs 1–15, 105), with all its attendant blessings. For a similar understanding of death in the NT, see the comments on Rm 6:15-20; 7:1425; 8:12-13.

Retribution

Besides life and death, various rewards and punishments are said to follow from wisdom/righteousness and folly/wickedness respectively (e.g., Pr 3:2, 9-10; 10:3; 21:7). This theology of retribution, so common in Proverbs, must be qualified by four important considerations. First, these retributive statements are proverbial. As discussed above, proverbs are not mechanistic promises but statements with a range of application. And that application may need to be qualified by other proverbs and biblical teaching that present mitigating factors. “A single proverb does not intend to address all the nuances of a situation; it just gives a snapshot of life to motivate proper behavior” (Longman, Proverbs, 85). So, for example, though God blesses the righteous and judges the wicked, Proverbs (as well as Job, Ecclesiastes, and Psalms) also indicates that there are times when the wicked do seem to prosper (cf. 10:2; 11:4) and the righteous suffer (24:16).

This leads to a second consideration. Retributive statements must be understood with a long-range perspective. Any gains for wicked fools and any setbacks for the righteous wise are short-lived (cf. 24:15-16). Put differently, viewed in light of eternity, it is certainly the case that wisdom/righteousness is blessed and wickedness/folly is cursed. While that blessing/cursing may not always be seen immediately, it will be seen inevitably. This long-term perspective fosters complete trust in the Lord (Waltke, Book of Proverbs 1–15, 109; cf. 3:5-6).

However, third, one usually does not need to wait until eternity to see the principles of retribution at work. For example, generally speaking, experience even in this fallen world demonstrates that those who are self-controlled, diligent, wise in their speech, and gracious to others will prosper far more than those who are not. While mitigating factors may exist (see above), they are exceptions to a rule that generally pertains.

Finally, God Himself stands behind retributive justice. The general principles pertain because the Lord built the world that way (Longman, Proverbs, 84). And, in any case, in the end God will bring all things into judgment (cf. Ec 12:14). This is why the wise will fear and trust in the Lord.