An Overview of the Book of Psalms

The Hebrew title of the book of Psalms is Tehillim, literally “praises.” However, the English title Psalms is adopted from the Septuagint (LXX) Greek Bible in the intertestamental period, which titled the book Psalmoi, meaning “songs to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument,” or simply “songs of praise.” The LXX Greek word translates the Hebrew word mizmor (“song”) that occurs in the titles of 57 of the psalms as the title. The English translators transliterated the Greek Psalmoi, resulting in the title “Psalms” in English Bibles.

Who Wrote the Book of Psalms?

There is a distinction between God as the author and originator of the ideas and intentions of the text (2Tm 3:16-17), and the individual human psalmists as the writers (2Pt 1:21). This is illustrated in the NT with respect to Psalms in Ac 1:16, where Peter cited Pss 69:25 and 109:8 as “Scripture . . . which the Holy Spirit foretold by the mouth of David” (see also Ac 4:24-25, cf. Pss 1–2; Heb 4:7, cf. Ps 95:8).

Certain psalms begin with a superscription/ heading, which is part of the text indicating the author. King David is explicitly named in the headings of 73 psalms, as well as having his authorship identified in the NT for three other psalms (Pss 1–2 in Ac 4:25; Ps 95 in Heb 4:7). Asaph is the author of 12 psalms, predominantly with postexilic content (50, 73–83). He was one of three heads of the three families of Levitical singers in the time of David (see 1Ch 25) and was also a seer/prophet (2Ch 29:30).

The sons of Korah, a branch of the Levitical singers who led temple worship (2Ch 20:19), are identified in Pss 42, 44–49, 84–85, and 87– 88. King Solomon wrote two psalms (72, 127). Ethan, a wise man, Levitical singer, and probably the same as Jeduthun (1Kg 4:31; 1Ch 2:6; 15:19; 2Ch 25:1) wrote one psalm (89). Heman who has co-attribution to the sons of Korah in one psalm (88), was a singer and wise man in Solomon’s court (1Kg 4:31; 1Ch 15:19). Moses wrote one psalm (90).

Of the 46 remaining psalms for which no headings are supplied perhaps three more (Pss 96, 105, and 106) were written by David on the testimony of 1Ch 16:7-36, which ascribes to David (“David first assigned”) a psalm of thanksgiving selectively derived from those three (i.e., Pss 96; 105:1-15; and 106:1, 47-48). The remaining 43 psalms are anonymous, without headings, although tradition has attributed several of them to David.

When Was the Book of Psalms Written?

Historically the individual psalms were written over a period of about 1,000 years, from the time of Moses (c. 1400 BC) to the Israelites’ return from exile (c. 450 BC).

There is no definitive indication of the person or persons responsible for compiling and ordering the psalms in the form of the book, though it seems likely that the bulk of this work was undertaken by an editor after the return from Babylon.

The central implication of this distinction is that Psalms, particularly the royal psalms, must be read from this postexilic perspective when there was no Davidic king on the throne. As a result, the psalms are to be read not looking back at past kings of Israel but forward to the coming of the anticipated son of David, the messianic King.

What Is the Structure of the Book of Psalms?

In the Hebrew manuscripts, and as reflected in most translations, Psalms is subdivided into five distinct “books.” Though the individual psalms were written by different people at different times (see “Date” above), they were, through divine guidance, eventually compiled and organized around this five-book framework in the postexilic period. Each of the books ends with a doxology (cf. Book One, 41:13; Book Two, 72:18-19; Book Three, 89:52; Book Four, 106:48; and Book Five, Ps 150, which is a doxology to the whole Psalter).

The most likely structure is an intentional paralleling of the five-book subdivision of the Torah. This is affirmed not only by early Jewish tradition but also by the thematic parallels in the content of the corresponding books of the Torah and Psalms, as illustrated in the chart below.

In addition to each of the five books of Psalms being explicitly indicated in the Hebrew text by the headings “Book One,” “Book Two,” etc., the ending of each book is indicated by a clear doxology, the first four of which are variations of the formula “Blessed be . . . the Lord/His name . . . forever/to everlasting” (Pss 41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). The last of these is appropriately expressed by a grand doxology, the all-encompassing exhortation, “Let everything that has breath praise the Lord” (Ps 150:6). The individual unity of each of the five books is also underscored (often in quite subtle and sophisticated ways) by the use of similar literary forms and language.

A further structural parallel between Psalms and the Torah is evident in the way both compilations begin and end. Just as the first two chapters of Genesis focus on God’s intended ideal for man, both individually and collectively (i.e., “to worship and to obey”; see the commentary on Gn 2:15), so too do the first two chapters of Psalms focus on God’s intended ideal for man, both individually and collectively; i.e., to cultivate “delight . . . in the law” (Ps 1:2) suggests obedience, and to worship (“do homage,” Ps 2:12). Also just as the last two chapters of Deuteronomy express praise for God’s overall concern for Israel (Dt 33:3: “Indeed, he loves the people”), His judgment of her enemies (Dt 33:29: the Lord is “the sword of your majesty! So your enemies shall cringe before you”), and His anticipated future, messianic redemption (Dt 34:10: “Since that time no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses”), so too do the last two psalms express praise for God’s overall concern for Israel (Ps 149:4: “For the Lord takes pleasure in His people”), His judgment of her enemies (149:6: “Let the high praises of God be . . . a two-edged sword in their hand, to execute vengeance on the nations”), and His anticipated future—and final—redemption (149:4: “He will beautify the afflicted ones with salvation”).

How Does the Book of Psalms Fit in the Bible?

In modern Christian Bibles, Psalms is the second book in the books of Poetry section (following Job). This organization of Law (Genesis–Deuteronomy); History (Joshua–Esther); Poetry (Job–Song of Songs); and Prophets (Isaiah–Malachi) is derived from the tradition of categorizing the biblical books adopted by Hellenistic Jewry and reflected (with some differences) in the Septuagint (the earliest Greek translation of the OT).

In manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, Psalms is located in the section known as the Writings (or Hagiographa), the third and last division of the Hebrew Bible. The Hebrew Scriptures are divided into three sections: Torah (Genesis–Deuteronomy), the Prophets (Isaiah–Malachi) and Writings (Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah, Chronicles). Though the traditional place of Psalms in this third division varies between first (the modern Jewish consensus) and second (after Ruth or Chronicles), it is universally treated (as also in Christian tradition) as a distinct subgroup together with the two successive books of Proverbs and Job.

The prominent place of Psalms in the organization of the Hebrew canon is also evident in Luke 24:44, where, most likely because of its size, “the Psalms” is probably intended as a reference to the entire third division of the Writings (a figure of speech known as synecdoche, substituting a part for the whole). A similar reference—which is also highly significant as a testimony to the early canonization of the OT (earlier, at least, than many modern scholars have been prone to believe)—is also now known from a period more than 100 years before the previously cited reference by Luke, in one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, where the Scriptures are referred to as “the book of Moses and the books of the Prophets and (the Psalms of) David” (4QMMT, C 10).

What Are the Purpose and Themes in the Book of Psalms?

Almost every biblical theme and theologically significant idea is to be found in Psalms. However, the overarching purpose of the book is indicated by Pss 1 and 2, which were intended to be read together as an introduction to the entire book of Psalms. These two psalms are joined by the literary device in the Hebrew Bible known as an inclusio (or “book ending”), whereby the identical term or expression is intended to highlight the main theme of the “framed” unit—in this case, “blessed” (lit., “O, the blessedness of ”), denoting primarily a state of spiritual—and only secondarily material—well-being (not necessarily emotional happiness), equivalent to the blessedness indicated by Jesus in the Beatitudes (Mt 5:3-11).

As an introduction to the book, Ps 1 focuses on worship at the individual level and is grounded in God’s Word, whereas Ps 2 focuses on worship expressed at the corporate level and is grounded in submission to God’s Son, the Messiah King.

As a general introduction, therefore, these two psalms note that the book’s overarching purpose is to instruct believers in the ways of expressing both personal as well as collective worship, grounded in the study of God’s Word and directed toward the Anointed One, the Messiah. It is the Messiah who is the central theme of the book of Psalms, as the last words of David indicate (2Sm 23:1). The future Messiah was “the Delightful One of the songs of Israel,” or David’s favorite subject in the psalms (cf. comments on 2Sm 23:1).

What Are the Different Genres of Psalms?

The book of Psalms is Hebrew poetry. However, Hebrew poetry is not recognized by rhyming patterns as in English language poetry. Instead, several other characteristics typify this poetry:

1. Poetic Language

The beauty and power of the psalms are evident in their rich concise word choice, poetic language, and powerful word pictures—as seen in these examples: “the wicked are . . . like chaff ” (1:4); “you have shattered the teeth of the wicked” (3:7); “the Lord is my shepherd” (23:1); “as the deer pants for the water brooks, so my soul pants for You, O God” (42:1); “as the mountains surround Jerusalem, so the Lord surrounds His people” (125:2); and “He gives snow like wool; He scatters the frost like ashes” (147:16).

2. Inclusio

This literary device serves as “book ending” or “bracketing” of ideas with identical or parallel phrases to create a poetic unit of thought. For example, “how blessed is the man…”(Ps1:1)/“how blessed are all…”(Ps 2:12) and “hope in God, for I shall again praise Him for the help of His presence” / “Hope in God, for I shall yet praise Him, the help of my countenance and my God” (42:5, 11)

3. Parallelism

Another important feature of Psalms (and of all biblical Hebrew poetry) is parallelism, one idea presented in relation to another through parallel thoughts. Generally, parallelism is of three types:

(a) synonymous parallelism, in which consecutive lines (each of which is usually a half-verse) present the same or similar idea in different words—

He raises the poor from the dust,
And he lifts the needy from the ash heap.
(Ps 113:7)

(b) antithetical parallelism, in which consecutive lines present contrasting or opposite ideas, usually revolving around a shared point of contact—

The Lord keeps all who love Him, But all the wicked He will destroy.
(Ps 145:20)

(c) synthetic parallelism, in which consecutive lines present different, yet complementary ideas, which together provide a fuller and more specific idea than either line alone—

He trains my hands for battle,
So that my arms can bend a bow of bronze.
(Ps 18:34)

4. Acrostic Structure

In an acrostic, each verse in the psalm begins with a consecutive letter of the Hebrew alphabet (e.g., Pss 9–10 together are an acrostic poem; so are Pss 25; 34; 37; 111–112; and 145). Psalm 119, the longest psalm, is an acrostic praise to the Lord and His Word. It has 22 stanzas of eight verses; each stanza begins with the same letter. Acrostic structure is a helpful memory device, and reflects God’s truth from A to Z.

5. Musical Instruction

The psalms were written to be sung, and 30 psalms are identified as “songs” (e.g., Pss 45, 48, 92). The musical connotation mizmor, often translated “psalm” in the heading, occurs 57 times and only in the headings of psalms. It probably indicates a psalm that was sung by the Levites in the temple to the accompaniment of musical instruments (e.g., Pss 3, 48). Fifty-five of the psalms include musical instructions in their heading; e.g., “For the choir director” (Ps 5); “with stringed instruments” (Ps 67); “A Song of Ascents” (Pss 120–134). These songs of ascents are arranged in poetic units to be sung as the worshipers approach the temple in Jerusalem.

What Are the Different Types of Psalms?

Because the subject matter and content are so varied in the Psalter, a number of types or categories of psalms have been suggested. For an overview of the approaches to studying Psalms see Allen Ross, A Commentary on the Psalms, Volume 1: Psalms 1–41, Kregel Exegetical Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2012), 65–80. Because of the complex content of the psalms, some may be categorized as more than one type. A helpful classification of the psalms is:

1. Psalms of Praise and Thanksgiving

This is often thought of as the typical psalm, because these are frequently the most familiar; examples are Pss 21, 30, 32, 34, 40, 146, and 148.

These psalms often are related to specific incidences of personal deliverance. They include a proclamation of praise to God, a report of deliverance, a renewed determination to praise, and often instruction for corporate praise.

2. Hymnic Psalms

Some praise psalms are more specifically hymnic in structure, rather than related to personal deliverance. These have the common elements of: (1) call to praise; (2) cause for praise; and (3) concluding exhortation to praise. They often include a superscription regarding the choir or a musical notation. Examples are Pss 33, 36, 105, 111, 113, 117, 135.

3. Songs

The headings/superscriptions of 15 psalms specifically identify them as songs (18, 45–46, 48, 65–68, 75–76, 83, 87–88, 92, 108). These psalms were to be sung, and some include additional musical direction. These are all psalms of praise, except Pss 83 and 88. A specific group of songs are the songs of ascents (Pss 120–134).

4. Laments

The most numerous and common psalms are laments, making up about a third of the psalms. These psalms are cries or prayers of help in times of distress. The lament psalms include (1) an introductory plea to the Lord; (2) the specific lament describing the issue; (3) confession of trust in the Lord despite the circumstances; (4) petition for help; and (5) conclusion of a vow to praise the Lord despite circumstances and regardless of deliverance. Examples of personal laments are Pss 3, 4, 12, and 22.

There are a number of national lament psalms as well. These are focused more specifically on the circumstances faced by the nation of Israel as a whole and follow the same pattern. Examples are Pss 44, 60, and 83.

5. Imprecatory Psalms

Some of the lament psalms have an imprecatory element, calling for specific judgments to fall on the enemy. The verb “imprecate” means “to pray evil against” or “to invoke disaster upon.” These prayers are the plea of God’s people for justice for atrocities committed against them personally or against the nation of Israel by the Lord’s enemies; examples include Pss 5, 10, 17, 35, 58, 59, 69, 70, 79, 83, 109, 129, 137, and 140. These psalms may seem unloving and contrary to a biblical perspective. However, they are truthful and transparent expressions by the righteous, asking God to act on behalf of His people and for His name’s sake. This is particularly true in times of warfare when destruction of the enemy was essential to the survival of the king and his people. Moreover, in these psalms, the psalmists do not take vengeance into their own hands but pray for God to execute just judgment. Imprecatory psalms were prayers for God to act according to the righteous requirements of His Word in its laws and covenants.

Some have thought that these prayers are contrary to a NT ethic. However, martyred believers in heaven offer an imprecation, asking how long before God will bring just retribution on their murderers (cf. Rv 6:10-11). Both OT and NT believers did not rejoice in the death of evil people. However, they did look forward to God’s justice, when God would bring judgment on the wicked in accordance with His word, and make the world right (2Th 1:6-10).

What Is the Background of the Book of Psalms?

As originally written, and in the oldest manuscripts, the psalms were not numbered, nor were there verse divisions (as is true for the whole Bible). The helpful divisions were added much later. When reading or comparing different versions of the Bible, there may be a slight discrepancy in the numbering (though not the content) of the psalms. The Septuagint—an early Greek translation of the Bible produced in the intertestamental period by and for Hellenistic Jewry—has a verse division slightly different from the Hebrew. The early church adopted the Septuagint divisions in the OT and this has been followed by Roman Catholic tradition. Later, during the Reformation, there was a return to the Hebrew enumeration of the Psalms (Geneva Bible, Luther’s German Bible, KJV), and this is the common division in Protestant Bibles.

In addition, the Christian English versions do not number the heading/superscriptions as the first verse, whereas the English translations of the Hebrew/Jewish Bible do, thus resulting in a one-verse difference in the psalms (e.g., in Ps 3 the Hebrew Bible has nine verses, whereas Christian Bibles have eight).

By recognizing Psalms as a coherent collection of writing, organized in the postexilic period, the message of the entire book becomes clearer. Certainly the later organization did not alter the original meaning of the individual psalms, but it deepened and clarified the focus to be on the coming messianic King of Israel. At the time of the final redaction, there was no Davidic king on the throne of Israel, so the psalms, especially those which speak of a King (with a capital K), are all looking forward to the future messianic King. Based on the postexilic compilation of Psalms, David C. Mitchell concludes, “the messianic theme is central to the purpose of the collection” (David C. Mitchell, The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book of Psalms [Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997], 87). This would explain the way the NT writers frequently see Jesus the Messiah as the fulfillment of the psalms. They understood that He was the eschatological Davidic King anticipated in the book of Psalms.